Literature Review
The literature review of this study includes research related to three key questions: (a) What are racial microaggressions? (b) What are the challenges that Black students at predominantly white colleges and universities encounter in the classroom? (c) What does Black resistance look like at predominantly white colleges and universities?
Racial Microaggressions
How are racial microaggressions defined?
The concept of racial microaggressions1 was first coined in 1970 by psychologist Chester Pierce who defined it as the “subtle, stunning, often automatic, and non-verbal exchange which are ‘put downs’ of blacks by offenders” (Pierce, Carew, Pierce-Gonzalez, and Willis 1978: 66). In recent studies, racial microaggressions have
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Sue et al. (2009) identify three forms: (1) microassault, (2) microinsult, and (3) microinvalidation. A microassault is an “explicit racial derogation characterized primarily by a verbal or nonverbal attack meant to hurt the intended victim through name-calling, avoidant behavior, or purposeful discriminatory actions” (Sue et al. 2007: 274). These assaults are considered more “old-fashioned” racism where people will only display notions of minority inferiority “when they (a) lose control or (b) feel relatively safe to engage in microassault” (Sue et al. 2007: 274).
A microinsult conveys rudeness and insensitivity towards a person’s racial heritage or identity (Sue et al. 2007). They are more subtle than microassaults and are “frequently unknown to the perpetrator, but clearly convey a hidden message to the recipient of color” (Sue et al. 2007: 274). These can occur verbally, such as asking an Asian person to help with a science or math problem (Sue et al. 2007). Additionally, they can occur nonverbally, such as a white woman clutching her purse when a Black or Latinx approaches or passes by (Sue et al.
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When a teacher fails to disrupt the master narrative through their teaching practice, Black girls, like Chayla [Haynes] are only left with one recourse, to remain silent. Silence in this context is a manifestation of powerlessness that resembles surrender” (Haynes et al. 2016: 387). Likewise, invisibility in the classroom is mentioned by the African-American students in Solórzano, Ceja, and Yosso’s study that examines the impacts of racial climate on the undergraduate experiences of African Americans students through racial microaggressions. As expressed by one African American female, invisibility by professors is experienced when Black students are viewed as a numerical racial minority, which translates into being ingnored in the class: ‘I think that when professors see that there’s fewer of you, they’re less likely to address your concerns’” (Solórzano, Ceja, and Yosso 2000:
The actions presented stereotypical comments about Asian students such as “aren’t you supposed to be good at math,”
This article stood out to me because I have also experienced this type of act. I remember when I was at the mall by myself and I walked past a group of five older African American guys. Just by looking at them, I could tell they were trouble. When I walked by the first time they shouted at me “Hey ma, you’re pretty.” I ignored them and kept walking.
Tatum uses the theoretical perspective of both symbolic interaction and conflict theory in this book. The symbolic interaction in this book looks at the social interaction between racial identities, how we see ourselves and how others see us. Furthermore, it manifests itself in the stereotypes and prejudices that are perpetuated in our society; stereotypes help to reinforce negative images and ideals that we have about different races. An example in her book Dr. Tatum explains that one of her white male student once responded in his journal “is not my fault that blacks do not write books” (1445).
The author presents the readers with different experiences of what occurs in her everyday life. Each example contains racist actions although not drastic it’s subtle enough to be detected by people of color that might be oblivious to white people. These daily racists actions whether intentional or not are micro aggressions meaning that they are instances of racism that are communicated to people of color on a daily basis. The term micro aggression is linked with the text since each piece of text is an example of it that the author, Rankine, has experienced through and multiple people go through.
Historically Black colleges and universities (HBCUs) are institutions of higher education in the United States founded primarily for the education of African Americans. Prior to the mid-1960s, HBCUs were virtually the only institutions open to African Americans due to the vast majority of predominantly white institutions prohibiting qualified African Americans from acceptance during the time of segregation. As such, they are institutional products of an era of discrimination and socially constructed racism against African Americans (Joseph, 2013). Successfully, millions of students have been educated in spite of limited resources, public contempt, accreditation violations, and legislative issues. The purpose of this research paper is to discuss
Matthew Desmond and Mustafa Emirbayer (2009:342) argue in the Du Bois Review that “racism is much broader than violence and epithets” and reveals itself in common, everyday microaggressions. In May 2010, a string of assaults on elderly citizens of Asian descent by black individuals transpired in the San Francisco Bay area (Shih 2010). CBS San Francisco ran a segment covering the attacks featuring an interview with a 21-year-old black man named Amanze Emenike, who had a criminal history of juvenile robbery and theft (CBS 2012). CBS uses Emenike’s history as a basis for theorizing the motives driving the black attackers in the May 2010 attacks. This news segment sheds light on troubling portrayals of black men and people of color in mass media as all being dangerous criminals, as well as the stereotypes fueling racism amongst minority groups.
As a result of this movement, the term “microaggression” has risen to the forefront of university campuses. These small actions or choice of words, which appear to have no
This Institutional racism captures racial disparities and shows how that even racist thinking and thoughts can be prominent not just by an individual speaking, but all
While micro sociological reasons comprised of a lack of feeling part of the community, the general academic experience talking about the professor student relationship, and personal or health issue (Morris, 2007). However, with regard to macro sociological explanations, further accounts were found ranging from, course availability, dissatisfaction with student services, demographic issues where visible minorities felt excluded which led to less involvement in campus activities, curriculum, and the most popular being financial circumstances (Morris,
Delgado and Stefancic (2011) stated that Critical Race Theory explores how “race, racism, and power intersect to create different circumstances for people of color within society [...] and in postsecondary institutions” (as cited in Quaye, 2013, p. 172). Within the field of higher education, it is important for student affairs professionals to recognize how race permeates all aspects of an individual’s life to fully understand their students’ experiences. Unlike other student development theories, such as Baxter-Magolda’s (2008) self-authorship and Abes, Jones, and McEwen’s (2007) Model of Multiple Identities, CRT places race at the “center of the analysis and assumes that race is omnipresent” in an individual’s life (Quaye, 2013, p. 167).
Why Are All The Black Kids Sitting Together In The Cafeteria? The book became a classic in modern high school and college classroom settings. It is one of the most popular books that Beverly Daniel Tatum has written.
Judgment for using colloquialisms found mostly in the black community (African American Vernacular English, or AAVE, as it is called) is commonly paired with a white person’s latent racism — despite that white person perhaps thinking his or her
They claim, “...students of color are showing that they feel disconnected from their respective schools, that implicit yet institutionalized racism creates emotional distance between them and their white peers and faculty. Being a black student on a predominantly white campus certainly, doesn’t guarantee that the student will develop mental-health issues. However, various studies suggest that perceived or actual discrimination can make it hard for students of color to engage with their campus in the way that their white peers do.” This explains how students sometimes feel like they don’t get enough support from their universities and this is dangerous because it can lead that student to drop out of school.
Today in class, we discussed a topic that is deeply engraved in American history yet widely avoided by many: race. More specifically, terms like “racist,” “All Lives Matter,” and “white privilege,” which may make some people uncomfortable but more than ever, need to be confronted and examined. We watched several videos containing a variety of people discussing their own personal thoughts and feelings on such terms to spark our own conversations on the same topics. After viewing the first video on the word “racist,” I began to reflect on my own actions towards other people.
No matter their race, students should not feel socially unaccepted at school. In the essay, "Learning in the shadow of Race and Class" by Bell Hooks, she states “After my parents dropped me at the predominately white’s woman college, I saw the terror in my roommate’s face that she was going to be housed with someone black, and I requested a change.” (288). Bell explains the level of discomfort while being at a “white woman’s college.” Students should never have to feel like they’re not welcomed in schools.